The Entire Summary of Ch. 23…except pg 665-670

WORD DOCUMENT: Ch 23 Notes

• The second industrial revolution brought about steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum.

New Products

• Steel was substituted for iron.
• Rolling and shaping steel made it useful for construction of smaller, lighter, faster engines.
• The U.S. ended up producing more steel than the leaders in Europe but, in Europe Britain and Germany were the leaders.
• Great Britain also ended up falling behind in the chemical industry. France and Germany were able to produce alkalies in soap, textiles and paper.
• German laboratories overtook the British in production of artificial dyes and other synthetic compounds.
• Electricity is probably something none of us could live without today. It can easily be converted to other kinds of energy. Britain used hydroelectric power to power entire districts.
• Thomas Edison invented the lightbulb and Briton Joseph Swan lit up cities and communities using electrical lights.
• Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone and Guglielmo Marconi sent the first radio transmission across the Atlantic in 1901.
• Soon the electricity was used for transportation in vehicles such as electric trains, subways, and streetcars.
• Factories could move faster with conveyor belts, cranes, machines, and machine tools. Countries that could not enter the first revolution entered the second because of electricity.
• The internal combustion engine first used gas and air, and was inefficient until petroleum became widely used.
• Ocean liners started to use oil rather than coal.
• The automobile and airplane also became prominent. Gottlieb Daimler invented the light engine which was key to the invention of the car.
• The car was not revolutionized until Henry Ford created the assembly line which led to the mass production of the Model-T Ford.
• Air transportation started with the Zepplin Airship (attack this blog with Led Zepplins: http://www.netdisaster.com/go.php?mode=zeppelin&url=https://apeurosurvival.wordpress.com Warning: Turn down your speakers) and the Wright Brothers would make their first flight.

New Markets

• The markets for the products influenced the sale of manufactured goods. Foreign markets were heavily saturated and the focus needed to be shifted to domestic markets.
• Population also dramatically increased and led to the doubling and sometimes tripling of wages. Prices on food and manufactured products also dropped because there was now a faster way to transport goods.
• A new technique in mass marketing was the department store. Hopefully you all know what that is. xD
• People desired to own typewriters, sewing machines, clocks, bicycles, and electrical lights.
• However all this boom lead to competition and a reaction to it. Tariffs were reintroduced to help the domestic economy.
• Cartels, similar to oligopolies, were a group of independent enterprises that worked together to control prices and fix production quotas to restrain competition.
• Cartels were paralleled with larger manufacturing plants in the industries of steel, machinery, heavy elec. equipment, and chemicals.
• The growth in economy was pushed by competition while the growth in factories pushed for more efficiency.
• One way to increase efficiency was to use mechanical transportation within plants such as cranes.
• Eventually the assembly line migrated from the United States to Europe.

New Patterns in an Industrial Economy

• The Second Industrial Revolution resulted in the modern basic economic pattern (business cycle). First a period of economic boom, then a gradual decline in economic prosperity until it hits either a recession or a depression. (think about the current US economy in year 2007-2008 so far) Eventually the economy climbs out of recession and back into an upward trend.
• Europe experienced economic boom until WWI.

German Industrial Leadership

• Germany surpassed Britain because Britain already had a hardwired factory system that was hard to break away from in the second revolution. Germany on the other hand, was able to develop with the assistance of things like electricity.
• British manufacturers were wary of innovations and were also unwilling to fund for formal science and technical studies.
• Germans with their cartels encouraged banks to provide a huge sum for investment.
• Companies began to invest capital in laboratories to do their own research in areas such as organic chem. and elec. engineering.

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC ZONES

• Europe was divided into two major economic zones. One including Britain, France, Belgium, western Austro-Hungarian Empire, Germany, and the Netherlands. Regions here had a higher standard of living and healthy living conditions.
• The other zone was mainly Italy, most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, and Russia. This was a backward Europe based in agriculture and was used by the rest of Europe for raw materials.
• The abundance in grain led to a drop in price in commodities. Soon countries began to focus on different foods such as cheese, eggs, butter, and sugar beets.
• Threshing machines and chemical fertilizers were introduced.

A WORLD ECONOMY

• Growth in marine and land transportation.
• Beef and wool from Argentina and Australia, coffee from Brazil, nitrates from Chile, iron ore from Algeria, and sugar from Java.

Women and Work: New Job Opportunities

• Controversy over a “woman’s right to work”
• Working class males advocated that keeping women out of industrial work would lead to moral and physical well-being of families.
• Women that needed to make income were forced to work either in sweatshops doing “slop work” or marginal work.

WHITE COLLAR JOBS

• However, low paying white collar jobs (sit in an office job or non-physical labor) began to show up and attracted women because of a shortage of male workers.
• Teaching, nursing, and little literacy skills necessary. It was hard to move up in ranks.
• However, these jobs were much better than long hours in a factory or a mine and women saw them to be an escape from the “dirty” work.

PROSTITUTION

• Many working class women were forced to become prostitutes in order to make a living.
• Most prostitutes were in their late teens to early 20s and married as fast as they could or decided to return to the workforce.
• British gov’t didn’t do much to regulate except with the Contagious Diseases Law that gave the authorities the right to examine prostitutes for any diseases and if they were infected, they were isolated in special institutions called lock hospitals that gave moral instruction.
• Josephine Butler argued that the law was sexist as it singled out women with diseases. Soon she was able to gain repeal of the law.

Organizing the Working Classes

• Political parties were formed because people desired to improve working and living conditions.

SOCIALIST PARTIES

• Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel were under the direction of Marxist leaders and formed the German Social Democratic Party which was a mass political party that attempted to gain seats in the Reichstag. The party would then pass legislation for the workers.
• Although the government tried to rid the SDP, it continued to grow until they recieved 1.5 million votes, gaining 35 seats, becoming the largest party in Germany.
• Other countries also had social democrat parties but none were nearly as successful as the Germans.
• The French socialist parties united together to form a single Marxist-socialist party.
• Russians also formed the Marxist Social Democratic Labor Party.
• All these socialist parties were on the verge of attempting to form an international organization that would rise up against capitalism.
• The Second International was formed and was a loose network of the socialist parties. May Day (May 1st) was coordinated to be an international strike day. However there were major differences among the people: revisionism and nationalism.

REVISIONISM AND NATIONALISM

• Some Marxists believed that capitalism needed to collapse in order to form a social means of production. (pure capitalism)
• This position was challenged, however, by revisionists.
• Edward Bernstein was a socialist that was exiled in Britain where he picked up many of the ways of the British socialists and the British parliamentary system.
• Bernstein’s Evolutionary Socialism challenged some of Marx’s ideas and declared them wrong.
• Bernstein stated that the middle class was not shrinking but rather expanding and the working class was not getting worse but better.
• He said that revolution wasn’t necessary and that instead the workers should band together in political parties and bring about change in peaceful ways.
• He called his concept “evolution by democratic means rather than revolution”
• German and French leaders and the Second International declared revisionism heresy but this did not stop the German Social Democrats from leaning toward Bernstein’s ideas.
• Nationalism was another force as Marx assumed that the “workers did not have a country” and that they would all band together. However, each socialist party in each country did things differently and national pride could overtake the class struggle in importance, therefore this concerned the socialists.

THE ROLE OF TRADE UNIONS

• Unions were given the right to strike in 1870. Strikes were necessary to achieve the goals of the workers. A walkout by women in the match industry and dockworkers led to the est. of trade unions.
• Two million workers had enrolled in trade unions by 1900.
• Trade unions developed more slowly on the continental countries. French unions were linked to socialism and and were badly splintered due to the failure to centralize the socialist parties into one union. The General Confederation of Labor had this problem and proved to be weak.
• German trade unions were also est. by political parties but had better progress. Strikes and bargaining with employers proved effective and the Germans were growing further away from revolution.

THE ANARCHIST ALTERNATIVE

• The lack of revolutionary fervor drove some people to become anarchists from Marxism.
• Early anarchists believed that people were born good but were corrupted by government and state.
• True freedom was defined by the elimination of the state and all social organizations.
• Eventually, though, anarchists in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Russia began to use radical means to achieve anarchism.
• Russian  Michael Bakunin said that small groups of well trained fanatical revolutionaries would be able to overthrow government.
• Assassinations were the main means of radicalism combined with fanatical revolutionaries.

The Emergence of a Mass Society

Population Growth and Emigration

• Debated causes for the decline in death rates contributed to a population boom.
• One probable cause was that the medical field was starting to kick off, especially with smallpox vaccinations and other medical advancements.
• Improved health and nutrition amongst the people also contributed to the population boom. Food was now more plentiful and caused less hunger and starvation.
• Pasteurization of milk prevented intestinal disorders.
• Population growth was not evenly distributed either. Many workers from non-industrialized areas began to migrate to the industrialized areas to seek work.
• Poles migrated to the Ruhr Germany area and the Italians migrated to France.
• However, Europe alone could not sustain the pressure of the increasing population. The booming economies of North America and the cheap shipping fare led to mass migration to North America.
• In some areas such as Austria-Hungary, minorities emigrated in order to escape oppression. Persecuted Jews, for example, emigrated to the United States.

Transformation of Urban Development

• Cities experienced dramatic increases in size due to better health and migration from the rural areas to the cities in search of employment.

IMPROVING LIVING CONDITIONS

• Filthy living conditions were pointed out by Edwin Chadwick, Rudolf Virchow and Solomon Neumann.
• Legislation for health reform was enacted because of this.
• Board of health were created and urban medical officers and building inspectors were allowed to inspect public dwellings for hazards.
• Building regulations were created to prevent contractors from cutting corners. The Public Health Act of 1875 in Britain prohibited the construction of new buildings without running water and internal drains.
• The ability to bring clean water and dispose of sewage was especially important to health.
• A system of dams and reservoirs and aqueducts solved the fresh water problem. Private baths became available due to gas and electric heaters that made warm baths possible. Showers appeared in 1880. Jacuzzis were invented later…not sure how much later. xD
• Wastewater took the underground path in mammoth pipes and German cities began to construct a sewer system. Frankfurt, Germany had a slogan “From the toilet to the river in half an hour”…..the river…ew.
• The British had a better approach, pumping the water 12 miles away first and then treating it chemically. Most others just dumped it into much polluted rivers.

HOUSING NEEDS

• Middle class reformers also focused on housing needs.
• Overcrowded slums were viewed as a health, political and moral hazard.
• V.A. Huber stated that good housing was a requirement for a stable family live and a stable society.
• Housing first was addressed by the middle class. Huber believed that construction of model homes renting at reasonable prices would push landlords to raise their standards.
• Octavia Hill, granddaughter of a celebrated social reformer, refurbished some living areas with help from her friend (financial help).
• She also created housing for 3500 tenants.
• Lord Leverhulme constructed a model village with his money and it was called Port Sunlight. Port Sunlight offered pleasing living conditions that trying to establish that good living conditions contributed to a happy workforce.
• Ebenezer Howard founded the British “garden city” movement. He advocated the construction of small towns that were separated from each other with open country to provide recreation. The first real garden city was called Letchward Garden City.
• Governments soon came to realize that private enterprise could not sustain all of the housing developments. British law established town councils to collect new taxes in order to construct inexpensive housing for the workers. London and Liverpool were the first to try this out.
• Germany and France also began to do this although France on a smaller scale by providing credit to contractors that would construct housing for the poor working class.
• However, none of these improvements really helped until WWI. The need for planning was necessary and soon municipal governments began to construct housing on a large scale.
• This invalidates the preconception that the government that governs least governs best, a liberal principle. Governments were stepping into ground they have never touched before.

REDESIGNING THE CITIES

• The old style of confining cities into defensive walls were now useless and restrictive. The walls were torn down in order to form boulevards and parks. This was especially prominent in Vienna.
• Broader streets served for military purposes, moving troops at a faster rate. This was shown by Napoleon III’s redesigning of Paris.
• People had to relocate from all this reconstructions and they moved to neighboring villages and those were eventually incorporated into the city.
• Streetcars and commuter train lines allowed working and middle class residents of the suburbs to get to work and home quickly and cheaply.

Social Structure of the Mass Society

• Although the standard of living was up and wages doubled, the Western society was still full of poverty with a huge gap between the rich and the poor.

THE ELITE

• Aristocrats and wealthy industrialists, bankers,  and merchants formed the new elite.
• The source of money was not farmland but rather investments. The investors were called plutocrats Gradually though, the wealth rubbed off to some of the upper middle class.
• The wealthiest person in Germany was not an aristocrat but rather an entrepreneur by the name of Bertha Krupp. Bertha Krupp inherited her dad’s business after he committed suicide.
• Plutocrats purchased estates and began to fuse the upper middle class with the elite.
• Marriage also served as a merger for these two groups. Daughters of tycoon acquired titles while heirs  gained new sources of cash. Wealthy American heiresses were in high demand. When Consuelo Vanderbilt married the duke of Marlborough, the duchess brought 2 million pounds (cash) to the duke.
• This merging wasn’t always harmonious. The Germans in particular would combine this with anti-Semitism. Aristocrats would snub people just because they were Jewish.

THE MIDDLE CLASSES

• The middle class was rather divided. Below the upper middle class was a group of professionals (law, medicine, civil service)
• Newer groups added to the middle classes included business managers and new professionals such as engineers.
• The lower middle class consisted of shopkeepers, traders, manufacturers,  and prosperous peasants.
• Between the lower class and the lower middle class were the white collar jobs.
• Moderately prosperous and and successful middle classes shared the same lifestyle.
• They preached their worldviews to their children and other classes. Victorian Britain showed this and the European middle classes accepted and promoted the importance of progress in science. Hard work was primarily the human good. Regular churchgoers combined Christian principles along with good conduct.
• The mid-class was concerned with the right way of doing things.

THE LOWER CLASSES

• 80 percent of the European pop. was the lower class. Most were landholding peasants and agricultural laborers.
• Prosperous landowning peasants shared values with the middle class.
• Military conscription brought peasants in contact with other classes.
• Children were forced to speak and learn the national dialect.
• Urban working class: skilled artisans and semiskilled laborers
• Urban workers experienced betterment of life through urban reforms, rise in wages and lower prices of goods and services.
• Leisure time increased and they got Saturday afternoons off now.

“The Woman Question”: The Role of Women

• Traditionally women stayed at home while the men worked.
• Marriage was viewed as the only honorable career and most women took this path.
• Birthrates declined and illegitimacy rates declined. Birth control awareness was raised. Dr. Aletta Jacob founded the first birth control clinic.

THE MIDDLE CLASS FAMILY

• Family was central institution of life and the men worked while the wives focused on the household.
• The use of domestic servants, however, gave the women more leisure time. This led to the cult of domesticity.
• The Victorians created the family Christmas and U.S. Independence Day celebrations switched from getting drunk to family picnics.
• Mothers were seen as the most crucial force in protecting children from the harmful influences of the world. New children’s games appeared.
• Sons were sent off to school and separated from society until 16 or 17. Sports were used to toughen the guys up.
• Boy Scouts established.
• The founder of Boy Scouts, Robert Baden-Powell encouraged his sister to make a girls division
• Relatively few households could hire many domestic servants so the ideal mother was rare in reality.
• Women were forced to work quite hard and managing the household was rather tough.
• Children were viewed as dependents not potential wage earners as they were protected by child labor laws.

Science/Culture in Age of Realism

Romanticism began to fade away and was replaced by Realism, the focus shifted from the inside world of reality to the outer material world.

A New Age of Science

• The machines of the industrial revolution did not require any pure science. However, the advancement of technology did increase the interest in basic scientific research.
• The steam engine led to the study of thermodynamics because of how it functioned, laws of thermodynamics were core of 19th century physics.
• Louis Pasteur found the the germ theory of disease. In chem, Dmitri Mendeleyev created the periodic table of elements, organizing them by atomic weight. Michael Faraday created a generator laying down the foundation of the usage of electricity.
• The popularity of science led many to adopt the scientific method.
• Discoveries seemed to undermine the faith of many people. Truth was found in the concrete material of human beings, not revelations gained by feelings or intuitive flashes.

Charles Darwin

• Charles Darwin was an amateur when it came to science. He was appointed as a naturalist aboard the H.M.S. Beagle in order to survey and study the land masses of South America and the south pacific.
• As he observed isolated animals, he began to believe that animals evolved over time to respond to their environment and formulated the theory of natural selection and published it in On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.

How Natural Selection Worked

Thomas Malthus’s Population Theory was used

Many more individuals of a species are born than ones the possibly can survive. Therefore, they all compete for resources. There was a struggle for existence. Individuals that passed this struggle cane live onward because they have successfully adapted to their environment. The species/individuals that did not surpass the struggle became extinct.

• Darwin’s theory applied to humans after his writing of The Descent of Man.
• At first his theories were not well received because humans were being told that they are just ordinary beings from nature, not unique. Eventually though scientists began to accept his theory. Many tried to apply it to society, an example of the influence of science.

A Revolution in Health Care

• Clinical observation and detailed autopsies were the first step to the advancement of medicine.
• The real breakthrough was the discovery of germs that caused disease discovered by Louis Pasteur.
• Louis Pasteur was a chemist that revealed that microorganisms were behind the fermentation process.
• The government heeded the value of Pasteur’s work and the examination of a disease in wine led to the process of pasteurization (heating substance to kill off microorganisms)
• He also developed the process of immunization when he turned his focus to human diseases such as rabies and soon after this process was used to create vaccinations for other diseases.
• Surgery was once unsuccessful because of the risk of infection. Joseph Lister developed the antiseptic principle. His usage of carbolic acid proved effective in destroying bacteria.
• People no longer got infected by diseases in hospitals.
• However, patients were still in pain during surgery, this was corrected by chloroform and sulfuric ether.
• These developments became essential to sanitation in the public pasteurization of milk, immunization, and better water purification.
• In the course of 19th century, virtually every western country had a medical academy but none of them were under uniform standards and resistance was against this move.
• There were also no entrance requirements and degrees were granted after several months of lectures.
• Most females were excluded until Elizabeth Blackwell was admitted to the Geneva College of Medicine in New York by mistake. She was eventually well respected by her male classmates for her intelligence and perseverance. She received a degree and opened up her own clinic in NY.
• Women were often separated from men in medical schools and were denied licenses. Finally the British parliament passed a law granting women the right to take examinations to qualify for licenses. Women were not giving full membership in the American Medical Association until 1915.

Science and the Study of Society

• The methods for studying science were soon applied to the study of society.
• Auguste Comte’s System of Positive Philosophy created a system of positive knowledge based on a hierarchy of of all sciences. Math was foundation to all sciences. Near the top was sociology, the science of human society.

Realism and Lit. in Art

• The belief that the world should be viewed realistically.

THE REALISTIC NOVEL

• Realists rejected the ideals of romanticism.
• They wanted to deal with plain folks of society, not the epic heroes of romanticism.
• Frenchman Gustave Flaubert was the leading novelist. His Madame Bovary was a description of a barren town. Emma Bovary was trapped in a marriage to a drab provincial doctor. Emma seeks adulterous affairs because she had read the romantic novels and was dying for romance. She was eventually driven to suicide for being unable to find the romance.
• Also Charles Dickens was pretty famous with his novels focusing on the lower class such as Great Expectations, A Christmas Carol, Tale of Two Cities, etc.

REALISM IN ART

• Romanticism began to die off in art in the second half of the 19th century being replaced by realism
• Gustave Courbet was the most famous. His Stonebreaker features two workers working on a road and was labeled the “cult of ugliness”. He did not care for painting goddesses or angels.
• Jean-Francois Millet was preoccupied with rural life scenes and painted three peasant women gathering grain in his The Gleaners.

Music: The Twilight of Romanticism

• New German School was a new group of musicians that emphasized emotional content rather than abstract form.
• Franz Liszt was a child prodigy and was an outstanding concert artist by the age of twelve.
• He mainly composed piano pieces and coined the term symphonic poem to his pieces that did not adhere to the traditional imagery ideas.
• Liszt’s son-in-law, Richard Wagner realized the German goal of a national opera. He was also a propagandist. He believed that the Opera was the true form of artistic expression and transformed the opera into “music drama” through his Gesamtkunstwerk “total art work” a musical composition.
  

 

 

Marx and Marxism

Marx and Marxism

• Beginning of Marxism was traced back to the Communist Manifesto written by both Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
• Marx was born into a prosperous family of rabbis and his carefree attitude towards school got himself sent to the University of Berlin.
• Earned a PhD in philosophy but could not teach at the school like he wished because he was an atheist. He became the editor of a liberal bourgeoisie newspaper in Cologne.
• He met Friedrich Engels who later became his lifelong friend.
• Friedrich had worked in his father’s factory and managed to get a firsthand taste of the working conditions which he called “wage slavery”.
• Marx and Engels got together to form a radical socialist party called the Communist league.
• However, only a few of Marx’s friends knew about the Communist Manifesto pamphlet he wrote but it became one of the most influential treatises in history.
• Marx had a combination of French and German ideas. The French gave him the power to assert that revolution could totally restructure society. The Germans gave him the idea that the course of history was led on by materialistic forces.

-Read on by yourself xD.-